The Red Edge Effects
Alexander P. Demchenko Palladin Institute of Biochemistry, Kiev 01030 Ukraine.
The Red Edge effects are the series of wavelength-selective phenomena that involve the spectral shifts, quenching, anisotropy and lifetimes. Being modulated by the energy of excitation quanta they can be observed both in fluorescence and phosphorescence and produce impact on different excited-state reactions, including the transfer of excitation energy. They are commonly observed in the systems displaying broader distribution of luminophore interaction energy with its environment and in the conditions restricting molecular mobility (polymer matrices, low-temperature glasses, protein molecules, etc.). These effects are consistently explained based on accounting for statistical distribution of fluorescence emitters on their interaction energy with the environment and on the spectral selection of species, the excitation energies of which deviate from mean values. Demonstrating static or dynamic inhomogeneous broading of spectra these phenomena allowed forming a new vision of structural disorder and molecular dynamics in condensed media.
1 Historical Background
The first observation of Red Edge effects was made by Gregorio Weber [1], see Fig. 1. He demonstrated an almost complete loss of excitation energy transfer evidenced by the loss of depolarization of fluorescence emission when the fluorescence of highly concentrated solutions of tyrosine, tryptophan and their analogs was excited at the long-wavelength edge of absorption spectrum. The conditions for these experiments were the solid fluorophore environments achieved in glass-forming solvents at low temperatures. Later on these studies were extended to other chromophores and other conditions that excluded fluorophore rotation as the mechanism of depolarization, so that in highly concentrated solutions the depolarization should be only due to the excited-state energy homo-transfer (the transfer between the same molecules). Migrating between differently located and oriented fluorophores, the emitted light loses its initial polarization. Meantime in rigid environments at the red edge of excitation band this does not occur and this fact was recognized as a rather general phenomenon (see ref. [2]).
Acheaving its correct interpretation was not easy, since it was in apparent contradiction with paradigm dominated in photophysics that was based on two empirical principles, the Vavilov’s law and the Kasha’s rule. The former postulates independence of emission energy on excitation energy within the absorption band and the latter states that the emission spectrum should occupy the same position on energy scale irrespective of the wavelength of excitation so that the emission must proceed from the lowest electronic and vibrational states. Commonly they were applied considering all chromophores in their ensembles identical on their interaction with their environments. New observations did not break these fundamental principles but introduced new concepts that came with new discoveries. Two grups of Bill Galley [3] in Canada and, independently, Anatoliy Rubinov and Vladimir Tomin [4] in Belarus have reported on finding of a new Red Edge effect – the bathochromic shift of fluorescence spectra at the red edge excitations.
Both of these groups started to consider instead of identical chromophore-environment conditions their distributions on interaction energies. They stated that the spectra of individual fluorophores in solutions shift differently because of photoselection of chromophores differing in these intermolecular interactions. Such distributions result in inhomogeneous broadening of spectra. Within such distribution, the photoselection of the fluorophores, the interactions of which with their environment deviates from their mean values, can be provided at the low-energy slope of excitation band (red edge). These photoselected fluorophores exhibit the wavelength-shifted emission. Of course, the molecular mobility in such systems should be slower than the excited-state lifetime, otherwise the local environments will be mixed and the effect has to disappear.
Direct connection between observation of Red Edge effects and the dynamics of solvent molecules can be easily demonstrated (Fig. 2). The wavelength-dependent shift disappears on the transition from cryogenic to room temperatures due to the appearance of molecular motions averaging the chromophore environments. For phosphorescence this transition was found to occur at much lower temperatures than for fluorescence, which correlated with much longer lifetimes providing larger time window for dynamic processes in the solvent. Dependence on the solvent was also remarkable, the effect decreased as one passes from polar to nonpolar vitrified media. These results are quite understandable since the noncovalent dipole-dipole interactions between polar molecules provide the strong contributions to dielectric solvation. With these developments it became clear that all the effects observed on variation of excitation and emission wavelengths should originate not from the violation of fundamental principles, but from their operation in specific conditions, when the ensemble of excited molecules is distributed on interaction energy with molecules in their surrounding.
Detailed studies in the conditions of molecular relaxations fitting the range of lifetimes of fluorescence emission provided not only strong support to the new concepts but allowed observing new phenomena. It was found that the relaxation-induced time-dependent motion of spectra strongly depends on the excitation wavelength. This dependence was specific: the motions of spectra disappear at the red edge, and on shifting the excitation wavelength further to the far anti-Stokes region they can even proceed with the increase of excited-state energy [5, 6]. This phenomenon was called ‘up-relaxation’. For achieving the relaxed state, here instead of releasing the thermal energy the energy is absorbed from the environment, providing the local cooling. It was also found that in inhomogeneously broadened systems the excited-state energy transfer is directed from short-wavelength excited to long-wavelength emitting species resulting in time-dependent motions of spectra. This effect is suppressed at the red-edge excitations.
